2 Interim measures across jurisdictions 2 1 Powers to impose interim measures 22 Enforcement cases 3 Key criteria for interim measures 3 1 Legal standards 311 Likelihood of infringement 3 1 2 Urgency to prevent serious and irreparable harm 32 General principles in designing interim measures 32 1 Temporary reversible and adaptable 3 22 immediate effects and enforceability 3 2 3 Proportionality 33 How procedural rules can impact interim measures 3 3 1 Ex officio y upon complaint 3 3 2 Stage of the investigation 333 Procedural safeguards 4 Policy considerations for effective interim measures 4 1 Theories of harm and markets in which interim measures may be effective 4 2 interim measures in times of crisis 4.3. Balancing of interests and costs 4.4. Judicial review 4.5. interim measures’ interaction with commitments and remedies 4.6. interim measures and regulatory initiatives in digital markets 4.7. international co-operation